Dante's Florence

The Divine Comedy by Dante is perhaps the most influential piece of Italian literature, from theological and political perspectives as well as cultural and linguistic. It was one of the first major works in the Dolce Stil Novo, the “sweet new style” or the “vulgar” dialect actually spoken by Italians rather than the Latin or Greek used in all religious, academic, and serious literary writing. It solidified the Italian language and was literature for the common people. At the time, "illiterate" meant that one could not read or write Latin or Greek, and literature exhibited the division between upper and lower class.

the entire Divina Commedia in Dante's house, Florence

The work itself was largely influenced by Dante's education as well as the politics and events of Florence during his life. Florence in the 13^th century was both intellectually active and politically turbulent. The growing tension between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor created political and theological divisions. As a result, much of Italy was divided between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the people of each city-state choosing the side that benefited them in context of their city. In Florence, the Guelphs supported the Papacy while the Ghibellines fought for the power of the Empire. The Florentine Guelphs defeated the Ghibellines in 1266, but soon the Guelphs divided into the Black and White Guelphs and fought more fiercely than ever. The Black Guelphs typically represented the old nobility and wanted the Pope to have a more active role in Florentine politics. The White Guelphs, of which Dante was a member, represented the new power of industry and money and wanted more freedom from Rome. Initially the Whites kicked the Blacks out of the city, but when the Blacks reclaimed power with the support of Pope Boniface VIII in 1302, they exiled many Whites, including Dante. By that point, Dante cared only about peace, returning to Florence, and unification of Italy. The only possible vehicle he saw for this was the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, so he tried to return to Florence multiple times by fighting alongside the Ghibellines, though he was never successful and the Holy Roman Emperor died before being able to unite the city-states. His feelings of betrayal influenced his placement of treachery as the deepest circle of the Inferno, as well as various rivals and members of the Black Guelphs in various circles. The 6th canto in each of the 3 canticas (Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso) is political. However, Dante was primarily an idealist thinking of universal peace and he condemned Italian politics in his poem for corrupting and dividing his beloved homeland.

Dante's death mask

Dante's education and the ideas of the time played a large role in shaping his epic poem. At the University of Bologna, his contemporaries also wanted to make the spoken dialect the written language of literature. He built his foundation in the classics, their influence prominent in his depiction of the Inferno as a combination of the ancient Roman underworld and the Christian Hell, as well as his incorporation of several classical authors and Roman mythological creatures. There were many influential theologians and philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas, whose ideas contributed to Dante's structuring of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. The scientific understanding of the earth and astronomy added to the physical description of the Universe, with an abyss descending to Lucifer at the very center of the earth furthest from God, Paradise extending in rings out from the Earth, and Purgatory a mountain on the opposite face of the Earth, made of the displaced rock of the Abyss formed when God threw Lucifer from Paradise.

Another important thing to note is the dualist mindset of the time. People were either good or evil and there was not much of a sense of in between. Certain actions made you unequivocally good while others damned you. In addition, this was a time of crusades and accusations of heresy. The Papacy felt threatened by other religions and condemned alternate interpretations of the Bible and Christianity. The medieval ideology is visible in the Inferno's unambiguous designation of humans to the punishments equal to their sin. Dante also warns against pitying the damned because their actions have merited their fates and God's judgment is perfect. Despite this, he follows the new theological ideas of his time by separating the sins of the Inferno from those of Purgatory. He recognizes that some sins warrant eternal punishment while others should be absolvable through penitence. The physical journey in the Divine Comedy from the Inferno, up Purgatorio, and ultimately into Paradiso allegorically represents the journey of the soul into Heaven. In the poem, Dante travels through a long, narrow tunnel that takes him from the bottom of the Inferno to the base of Purgatory, which is surrounded by water. This passage symbolizes the soul's rebirth, while the climbing of the mountain is the penitence and moral growth of the Christian life before man can reach Paradise. The Inferno is very physical, detailing the corporeal pain of sinners. Purgatorio is both physical and mental, with the "seven deadly sins" based on motives rather than actions, but still purged through physical toil. Paradiso is purely theological, with the spheres of heaven representing the Cardinal virtues (Fortitude, Justice, Temperance, and Prudence) and the Theological virtues (Faith, Hope, and Love), ending with the 9th non-material circle of Empyrean. While Dante's graphic descriptions of the circles of Hell warn against and condemn sin, he carries a message of hope and salvation. Though he does not pity sinners, Dante argues that all sin arises from love, and that through love the soul can find deliverance.

Il Duomo di Firenze

While on our Italian adventure we travelled to Florence for the night. Florence is a lively city full of people, shops, restaurants, and beautiful architecture. Il Duomo di Firenze (The Florence Cathedral) is a central point in Florence. People gather around the church to take a look inside and to observe the thousands of details of the huge cathedral.

The cathedral was created in the late 13th century in the Gothic style but was left unfinished for over a century because the architects were unsure of how to make domes large enough for the grand cathedral. There was a competition to engineer a dome for the Duomo announced in 1418. The two final competitors were Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi. Brunelleschi won the competition and work was begun on the dome in his design. The large dome was completed in 1436 and is pictured below:

As for the outside design of the building, the facade was started but left unfinished. The original design was for a wooden facade but seemed out of style by the Medici court. It was dismantled in 1588 under order of the Grand Duke Francesco de Medici. The outside of the building was left unfinished until the 1800s. A competition to design the facade was held and won by Emilio de Fabris. The design was created in the neo-gothic style in red, green, and white marble. The facade is said to honor Mary, the mother of Christ and the picture of Mary holding a flower sceptor can be seen above the central portal. The interior of the cathedral was kept fairly simple. It was created in the Gothic style and is very bare when compared to the detailed facade of the building.

Venetian Masks

The mask has been one of Venice's central traditions, and certainly its most famous, since the 13th century. Artisan mask makers, mascherieri, hand paint their papier-mâché works in the original baroque style while street vendors offer a wide selection to meet everyone’s individual tastes. During the time of the Republic, masks not only expressed creativity but also granted temporary social and political anonymity. The typical masks each had different meanings and backgrounds, ranging from the Black Plague to theatre.

The Bauta: This full coverage masks in the grotesque style was originally plain white with a projecting square jaw line that allowed the wearer to eat, talk, and drink. It was often worn with a cape and tricorn. By the 18^th century it had become part of the Venetian government, required at certain political decision-making events. It offered anonymity and equality during secret ballots.

Il Ridotto in Venezia by Pietro Longhi
click to enlarge

The Moretta (or Servetta Muta): Inspired by the French visard mask, which was used to protect lady’s faces from tanning and burning, this black velvet oval mask was featureless except for the eyeholes and was held in place by a button or pin held in the wearer’s mouth. Worn by patrician women, the mask intentionally rendered them mute and anonymous, hence the name “the mute servant.”

The Dama (Lady): After the Moretta fell into disuse later in the 18th century, the Dama mask became popular for elegant ladies, featuring extravagant ornamentation and attached headpieces.

http://impressivemagazine.com/2013/06/16/7-types-of-venetian-masks/

The Medico della Peste (Plague Doctor): During the time of the Bubonic Plague, some doctors wore a mask with built in eyeglasses and a beak over the nose. Some filled the hollow beak with herbs to cover the stench of the disease. They often paired the mask with a long black cloak, hat, and white gloves. Doctors hoped these sanitation precautions would keep them safe from sickness.  It is also said that the eerie appearance of the costume was to disguise the doctor from the demons of the plague and thereby protect them.

http://www.arsminerva.org/#!Il-Medico-della-Peste/zoom/ctzx/image1jsj

The Volto (Face): Also known as the Citizen Mask because it was worn by many of the common people, this white, expressionless mask covers the entire face and has basic facial features (although it does not have the protruding or hinged jaws of the Bauta or Commedia masks to allow eating). It can be either plain or elaborately embellished and painted. Today it is one of the most widely recognized Venetian masks and is part of many of the elaborate costumes in the Carnival parades and pageants.

Masks of the Commedia dell’Arte: these are the masks worn by the archetypal characters of the Commedia dell’Arte, a type of improvisational theatre based on a set of stock characters. Each character had certain exaggerated qualities meant to represent or caricature a particular Italian district or town. The use of masks in the costumes was inspired by the mask tradition of Venice. Eventually people wore the masks and costumes of the characters during the Carnival. They are overly expressive masks that convey the defining emotion or trait of the character.

http://www.themaskery.com/commedia_dell.html

click to enlarge

Arlecchino: The Harlequin provides slapstick humor with his agility contrasting his slow brain. His mask with raised eyebrows displays his surprised credulity. He can be the "noble savage" as well as the "wise fool."

Columbina: Counterpart to Arlecchino, she is the amorous lady's maid, characterized by intelligence, independence, and femininity. A Columbine mask is the popular half-mask covering only the eyes and cheekbones and highly embellished with feathers, beads, metals, or crystal. These have either ribbons to tie around the back of the head or a baton attached to the side with which to hold the mask to the face. It is said Columbina's mask is small because she did not want to cover her beautiful face.

Brighella: Arlecchino's enemy, Brighella is also a servant, but unlike Arlecchino, he is extremely cunning and dangerous. He is selfish and opportunistic with no sense of honor. His half-mask is typically olive-colored and displays a look of lust or greed.

Pantalone: Representing the old miserly merchant of Venice, Pantalone is greedy and gullible. His name comes from his characteristic red pantaloons. His mask is wrinkled to emphasize his age and has narrowed, greedy eyes.

Pulcinella: The pot-bellied and gleefully malicious servant evolved into the Mr. Punch of the notorious Punch and Judy shows. His mask features a long hooked nose, perhaps referring to his name meaning "little chick."

Il Dottore: The proud but incompetent doctor boasts of his prowess while prescribing ridiculous treatments. He satirizes the Bolognese scholars in black academic robes. His mask covers only the nose and forehead, revealing reddened cheeks from drinking.

Il Capitano: The Captain is an arrogant coward hiding behind his bravado. He makes up tales about his conquests and his title of Captain is almost certainly self-appointed. He is a caricature of the Spanish soldiers because during the late Renaissance, many parts of Italy were under Spanish domination. His mask displays a haughty expression, a long upturned nose, and occasionally a mustache.

Tartaglia: This character's defining trait is his stutter. He is also farsighted and dainty, inspiring the character of Porky Pig. His mask often features glasses or squinting eyes and a generally confused expression.

Pedrolino: Later evolving into the innocent romantic Pierro, Pedrolino is likable, simple, and often the victim. His oversized hand-me-down costume shows his low social status and he wears either no mask or just white powder to express his sensitivity.

Gli Innamorati: The Lovers wear no mask to contrast with the rest of the actors, but they do wear heavy make up and beauty marks. They are immature and childlike and are more in love with being in love than they are with each other.

illustrations from http://www.atelierdesarts.com/maschere/maschere.htm

Transformation of the City

Another thing I talked about with my supervisor was the transformation of large Italian cities. In the middle ages there were streets with very narrow houses built along each street. The Middle Ages saw the emergence of trade squares and was a very commercial period. Due to this, each house had a space beside it where they could have a shop. After the middle ages, in the Renaissance, richer families would buy a lot of the little houses and transform them into big palaces. There was a sort of competition between noble families of who could create the larges houses and palaces. They would garnish their houses with fancy gardens and decorations to show their wealth. The wealthy also transformed public spaces. The rich families would pool together money to create something that could be used by them. For example, in Bergamo, families in the upper town gathered together their money to pay for a theater uptown because downtown had a theater and they did not. This was not only a matter of convenience in the close location of the theater, but it was also a display of power by the wealthy families. Families would also put a lot of money into family tombs, and art for the church. One wealthy man destroyed part of an established church in order to make his own chapel.

In Rome there was a change in structure during the Baroque period (late 1500s- early 1600s). The structures of the middle ages were destroyed and larger streets were made. These streets typically had two circular centers on either side. These circles would consist of gardens or other public spaces. There was not as much Baroque architectural change in Northern Italy, but it was significant in places like Rome and Sicily.

One more thing that brought a lot of change to the towns were Railways. When the railways were built, new connections between towns were established. This was a typical transformation of Italian towns in the 1800s. The creation of railways changed the structure of the town. The railways were built outside of the previously established town. New roads were built to connect the towns to the railways and eventually the city expanded to include the railway station and the area around it.

The City Plan

When I met with my supervisor, Mrs. Barcella, she was very interested in discussing the general city planning with me. The basic plans for the city of Bergamo were the same basic plans as in other Italian cities that were built around the same time. First of all there were two major streets running through the city. There would be a main street going north to south, called the cardo, and another main street crossing it going east to west, called the decumano. Markets and buildings lined these main streets. Secondary streets formed off these parallel to the initial roads. Buildings would have a certain amount of allotted space to take up and this resulted in a rather grid-like city structure. The first walls that were built around Italian cities were the Roman walls. These walls surrounded the grid-like city in a square shape. Each side of the walls had a gate, so there was a north, east, south, and west gate to the city. As time went on, into the Middle Ages, the city grew outside of the initial Roman walls. The Roman walls were destroyed and a circular wall was created to surround the growing city. This happened around the 1100s, and 1200s. In the case of Bergamo there was a third series of walls built. The third walls were the Venetian walls. The Venetian walls were built around the 1500s and were jagged in shape and were important for the defense of Bergamo. Bergamo was in a key spot between Venice and Milan, so it needed to be protected. The walls of the Middle Ages were destroyed in order to make the Venetian walls. The walls were equipped with cannons, but Bergamo was never attacked so the wall remained in tact and the cannons were not used. Bergamo expanded but since the Citta Alta (upper city) was on a hill, the expansion happened lower down. Because of this, a new part of the city formed, a downtown or Citta Bassa. The Venetian walls did not get in the way of this expansion so they are some of the few walls that still remain in any of the old Italian cities. This is obviously a very simple description of the city planning but I felt that Mrs. Barcella did a very nice job explaining it. This was significant because it was not only the way Bergamo was formed but it was the way nearly all Italian cities were formed. Below is a rough sketch I drew of the city planning described by Mrs. Barcella:

Carnevale di Venezia

The origins of the Carnival are uncertain, but it is believed to have begun as a celebration of the Republic of Venice’s victory over Ulrich II of Treven, Patriarch of Aquileia in 1162 and later combined with pre-lent festivities. The introduction of the masks in the 13^th century may have been in protest of various laws or the social hierarchy of the time through class-anonymous disguises. Eventually revelers adopted masks representing the characters of the Commedia dell’arte, the Bauta used for anonymity in the government, and the “plague doctor” mask used during the Black Death. As Venice’s power began to decline during the 17^th century, the Carnival became a way for the city to display its strength to the rest of the world and keep up its image. When Austria took control of Venice, the King outlawed the Carnival as well as mask wearing. The tradition remained extinct until the 1970s when the Italian government decided to revive the Carnival in an effort to restore Venice’s rich heritage and identity. Now it is one of the most internationally recognized events, drawing millions of visitors every year.

Carnevale all’Arsenale and Volo dell’Angelo

Though originally the Carnival consisted of games representing Venetian history and victories, today the festivities include pyrotechnic shows, theatrical performances, acrobatics, music, dance, pageants, and mask competitions. However, the Carnevale all’Arsenale and Il Volo dell’Angelo retain their historic roots.

Il Carnevale all’Arsenale takes place each night for the two and a half weeks at Venice’s Arsenale or boatyards. An area along the lagoon side is decorated to look like a Renaissance era Venetian street, with costumed actors and vendors. A variety of shows – such as flame throwers, live bands, and Cirque du Soleil-esque acrobatics – rotate throughout the week.

A fireworks, flames, and water show on the lagoon set to classical music represents Venetian naval power and victory in the Battle of Lepanto. This battle in 1571 of the Venetian, Papal, and Spanish fleets against the Turks over the island of Cyprus was one of many growing conflicts between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Venetians celebrated their victory as a God-given triumph for the side of Christianity. Ironically, this battle also marked the decline of Venice’s naval domination, and eventually it had to cede Cyprus to the Turks in order to continue trade relations.

            Il Volo dell’Angelo, meaning “flight of the angel,” was originally “flight of the Turk.” In the 16^th century, a Turkish acrobat walked on a tightrope to the top of the bell tower in St. Mark’s Square and then descended upside down along the balcony of the Palazzo Ducale (Doge’s Palace), giving flowers and reciting poems. Nowadays the selected Angel (this year Julia Nasi) descends from the top of the bell tower with the help of a crane and steel wire, throwing flowers and officially launching the Carnival.

A relatively new tradition is the Flight of the Eagle, featuring an Italian athlete who symbolizes strength, courage, and rebirth. This year, the “Aquila” is Carolina Kostner, the bronze medalist female figure skater at the 2014 Sochi Olympics.

Pictures courtesy of carnevale.venezia.it

More Venetian Architecture

The Doge's Palace, or Palazzo Ducale, was the home of the elected ruler of Venice, or Doge, for centuries. It has also been the house of law courts, civil administration, bureaucracy and the city jail. Below is a picture of the Doge's Palace that I took:

Venetian Gothic (as mentioned in my other post) is the named given to the combination of Byzantine, Gothic, and moorish architecture. This style originated in the 14th century with the meeting of these three influences. The window-like structures of the arcade include the pointed arches and the quatrefoil above that is typical of a Venetian Gothic style window. As you can see in the arches below the arcade of the Doge's, There are Gothic pointed arches surrounding the entirety of the Doge's Palace. Part of the style of the Venetian Gothic architecture is a lightness and grace in their architecture. Because of the canals running through the entirety of the city, the space in Venice was limited and every amount of land was necessary space. This sets Venetian Gothic architecture apart from the architecture of many other European cities. Many other cities wanted to make their buildings large and heavy, but due to the land limitations in Venice, Venetians did not make their buildings any larger or heavier than was necessary. This resulted in the very light and graceful structure as seen in buildings such as the Doge's Palace.