Dante's Florence

The Divine Comedy by Dante is perhaps the most influential piece of Italian literature, from theological and political perspectives as well as cultural and linguistic. It was one of the first major works in the Dolce Stil Novo, the “sweet new style” or the “vulgar” dialect actually spoken by Italians rather than the Latin or Greek used in all religious, academic, and serious literary writing. It solidified the Italian language and was literature for the common people. At the time, "illiterate" meant that one could not read or write Latin or Greek, and literature exhibited the division between upper and lower class.

the entire Divina Commedia in Dante's house, Florence

The work itself was largely influenced by Dante's education as well as the politics and events of Florence during his life. Florence in the 13^th century was both intellectually active and politically turbulent. The growing tension between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor created political and theological divisions. As a result, much of Italy was divided between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the people of each city-state choosing the side that benefited them in context of their city. In Florence, the Guelphs supported the Papacy while the Ghibellines fought for the power of the Empire. The Florentine Guelphs defeated the Ghibellines in 1266, but soon the Guelphs divided into the Black and White Guelphs and fought more fiercely than ever. The Black Guelphs typically represented the old nobility and wanted the Pope to have a more active role in Florentine politics. The White Guelphs, of which Dante was a member, represented the new power of industry and money and wanted more freedom from Rome. Initially the Whites kicked the Blacks out of the city, but when the Blacks reclaimed power with the support of Pope Boniface VIII in 1302, they exiled many Whites, including Dante. By that point, Dante cared only about peace, returning to Florence, and unification of Italy. The only possible vehicle he saw for this was the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, so he tried to return to Florence multiple times by fighting alongside the Ghibellines, though he was never successful and the Holy Roman Emperor died before being able to unite the city-states. His feelings of betrayal influenced his placement of treachery as the deepest circle of the Inferno, as well as various rivals and members of the Black Guelphs in various circles. The 6th canto in each of the 3 canticas (Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso) is political. However, Dante was primarily an idealist thinking of universal peace and he condemned Italian politics in his poem for corrupting and dividing his beloved homeland.

Dante's death mask

Dante's education and the ideas of the time played a large role in shaping his epic poem. At the University of Bologna, his contemporaries also wanted to make the spoken dialect the written language of literature. He built his foundation in the classics, their influence prominent in his depiction of the Inferno as a combination of the ancient Roman underworld and the Christian Hell, as well as his incorporation of several classical authors and Roman mythological creatures. There were many influential theologians and philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas, whose ideas contributed to Dante's structuring of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. The scientific understanding of the earth and astronomy added to the physical description of the Universe, with an abyss descending to Lucifer at the very center of the earth furthest from God, Paradise extending in rings out from the Earth, and Purgatory a mountain on the opposite face of the Earth, made of the displaced rock of the Abyss formed when God threw Lucifer from Paradise.

Another important thing to note is the dualist mindset of the time. People were either good or evil and there was not much of a sense of in between. Certain actions made you unequivocally good while others damned you. In addition, this was a time of crusades and accusations of heresy. The Papacy felt threatened by other religions and condemned alternate interpretations of the Bible and Christianity. The medieval ideology is visible in the Inferno's unambiguous designation of humans to the punishments equal to their sin. Dante also warns against pitying the damned because their actions have merited their fates and God's judgment is perfect. Despite this, he follows the new theological ideas of his time by separating the sins of the Inferno from those of Purgatory. He recognizes that some sins warrant eternal punishment while others should be absolvable through penitence. The physical journey in the Divine Comedy from the Inferno, up Purgatorio, and ultimately into Paradiso allegorically represents the journey of the soul into Heaven. In the poem, Dante travels through a long, narrow tunnel that takes him from the bottom of the Inferno to the base of Purgatory, which is surrounded by water. This passage symbolizes the soul's rebirth, while the climbing of the mountain is the penitence and moral growth of the Christian life before man can reach Paradise. The Inferno is very physical, detailing the corporeal pain of sinners. Purgatorio is both physical and mental, with the "seven deadly sins" based on motives rather than actions, but still purged through physical toil. Paradiso is purely theological, with the spheres of heaven representing the Cardinal virtues (Fortitude, Justice, Temperance, and Prudence) and the Theological virtues (Faith, Hope, and Love), ending with the 9th non-material circle of Empyrean. While Dante's graphic descriptions of the circles of Hell warn against and condemn sin, he carries a message of hope and salvation. Though he does not pity sinners, Dante argues that all sin arises from love, and that through love the soul can find deliverance.

Venetian Masks

The mask has been one of Venice's central traditions, and certainly its most famous, since the 13th century. Artisan mask makers, mascherieri, hand paint their papier-mâché works in the original baroque style while street vendors offer a wide selection to meet everyone’s individual tastes. During the time of the Republic, masks not only expressed creativity but also granted temporary social and political anonymity. The typical masks each had different meanings and backgrounds, ranging from the Black Plague to theatre.

The Bauta: This full coverage masks in the grotesque style was originally plain white with a projecting square jaw line that allowed the wearer to eat, talk, and drink. It was often worn with a cape and tricorn. By the 18^th century it had become part of the Venetian government, required at certain political decision-making events. It offered anonymity and equality during secret ballots.

Il Ridotto in Venezia by Pietro Longhi
click to enlarge

The Moretta (or Servetta Muta): Inspired by the French visard mask, which was used to protect lady’s faces from tanning and burning, this black velvet oval mask was featureless except for the eyeholes and was held in place by a button or pin held in the wearer’s mouth. Worn by patrician women, the mask intentionally rendered them mute and anonymous, hence the name “the mute servant.”

The Dama (Lady): After the Moretta fell into disuse later in the 18th century, the Dama mask became popular for elegant ladies, featuring extravagant ornamentation and attached headpieces.

http://impressivemagazine.com/2013/06/16/7-types-of-venetian-masks/

The Medico della Peste (Plague Doctor): During the time of the Bubonic Plague, some doctors wore a mask with built in eyeglasses and a beak over the nose. Some filled the hollow beak with herbs to cover the stench of the disease. They often paired the mask with a long black cloak, hat, and white gloves. Doctors hoped these sanitation precautions would keep them safe from sickness.  It is also said that the eerie appearance of the costume was to disguise the doctor from the demons of the plague and thereby protect them.

http://www.arsminerva.org/#!Il-Medico-della-Peste/zoom/ctzx/image1jsj

The Volto (Face): Also known as the Citizen Mask because it was worn by many of the common people, this white, expressionless mask covers the entire face and has basic facial features (although it does not have the protruding or hinged jaws of the Bauta or Commedia masks to allow eating). It can be either plain or elaborately embellished and painted. Today it is one of the most widely recognized Venetian masks and is part of many of the elaborate costumes in the Carnival parades and pageants.

Masks of the Commedia dell’Arte: these are the masks worn by the archetypal characters of the Commedia dell’Arte, a type of improvisational theatre based on a set of stock characters. Each character had certain exaggerated qualities meant to represent or caricature a particular Italian district or town. The use of masks in the costumes was inspired by the mask tradition of Venice. Eventually people wore the masks and costumes of the characters during the Carnival. They are overly expressive masks that convey the defining emotion or trait of the character.

http://www.themaskery.com/commedia_dell.html

click to enlarge

Arlecchino: The Harlequin provides slapstick humor with his agility contrasting his slow brain. His mask with raised eyebrows displays his surprised credulity. He can be the "noble savage" as well as the "wise fool."

Columbina: Counterpart to Arlecchino, she is the amorous lady's maid, characterized by intelligence, independence, and femininity. A Columbine mask is the popular half-mask covering only the eyes and cheekbones and highly embellished with feathers, beads, metals, or crystal. These have either ribbons to tie around the back of the head or a baton attached to the side with which to hold the mask to the face. It is said Columbina's mask is small because she did not want to cover her beautiful face.

Brighella: Arlecchino's enemy, Brighella is also a servant, but unlike Arlecchino, he is extremely cunning and dangerous. He is selfish and opportunistic with no sense of honor. His half-mask is typically olive-colored and displays a look of lust or greed.

Pantalone: Representing the old miserly merchant of Venice, Pantalone is greedy and gullible. His name comes from his characteristic red pantaloons. His mask is wrinkled to emphasize his age and has narrowed, greedy eyes.

Pulcinella: The pot-bellied and gleefully malicious servant evolved into the Mr. Punch of the notorious Punch and Judy shows. His mask features a long hooked nose, perhaps referring to his name meaning "little chick."

Il Dottore: The proud but incompetent doctor boasts of his prowess while prescribing ridiculous treatments. He satirizes the Bolognese scholars in black academic robes. His mask covers only the nose and forehead, revealing reddened cheeks from drinking.

Il Capitano: The Captain is an arrogant coward hiding behind his bravado. He makes up tales about his conquests and his title of Captain is almost certainly self-appointed. He is a caricature of the Spanish soldiers because during the late Renaissance, many parts of Italy were under Spanish domination. His mask displays a haughty expression, a long upturned nose, and occasionally a mustache.

Tartaglia: This character's defining trait is his stutter. He is also farsighted and dainty, inspiring the character of Porky Pig. His mask often features glasses or squinting eyes and a generally confused expression.

Pedrolino: Later evolving into the innocent romantic Pierro, Pedrolino is likable, simple, and often the victim. His oversized hand-me-down costume shows his low social status and he wears either no mask or just white powder to express his sensitivity.

Gli Innamorati: The Lovers wear no mask to contrast with the rest of the actors, but they do wear heavy make up and beauty marks. They are immature and childlike and are more in love with being in love than they are with each other.

illustrations from http://www.atelierdesarts.com/maschere/maschere.htm

Carnevale di Venezia

The origins of the Carnival are uncertain, but it is believed to have begun as a celebration of the Republic of Venice’s victory over Ulrich II of Treven, Patriarch of Aquileia in 1162 and later combined with pre-lent festivities. The introduction of the masks in the 13^th century may have been in protest of various laws or the social hierarchy of the time through class-anonymous disguises. Eventually revelers adopted masks representing the characters of the Commedia dell’arte, the Bauta used for anonymity in the government, and the “plague doctor” mask used during the Black Death. As Venice’s power began to decline during the 17^th century, the Carnival became a way for the city to display its strength to the rest of the world and keep up its image. When Austria took control of Venice, the King outlawed the Carnival as well as mask wearing. The tradition remained extinct until the 1970s when the Italian government decided to revive the Carnival in an effort to restore Venice’s rich heritage and identity. Now it is one of the most internationally recognized events, drawing millions of visitors every year.

Carnevale all’Arsenale and Volo dell’Angelo

Though originally the Carnival consisted of games representing Venetian history and victories, today the festivities include pyrotechnic shows, theatrical performances, acrobatics, music, dance, pageants, and mask competitions. However, the Carnevale all’Arsenale and Il Volo dell’Angelo retain their historic roots.

Il Carnevale all’Arsenale takes place each night for the two and a half weeks at Venice’s Arsenale or boatyards. An area along the lagoon side is decorated to look like a Renaissance era Venetian street, with costumed actors and vendors. A variety of shows – such as flame throwers, live bands, and Cirque du Soleil-esque acrobatics – rotate throughout the week.

A fireworks, flames, and water show on the lagoon set to classical music represents Venetian naval power and victory in the Battle of Lepanto. This battle in 1571 of the Venetian, Papal, and Spanish fleets against the Turks over the island of Cyprus was one of many growing conflicts between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Venetians celebrated their victory as a God-given triumph for the side of Christianity. Ironically, this battle also marked the decline of Venice’s naval domination, and eventually it had to cede Cyprus to the Turks in order to continue trade relations.

            Il Volo dell’Angelo, meaning “flight of the angel,” was originally “flight of the Turk.” In the 16^th century, a Turkish acrobat walked on a tightrope to the top of the bell tower in St. Mark’s Square and then descended upside down along the balcony of the Palazzo Ducale (Doge’s Palace), giving flowers and reciting poems. Nowadays the selected Angel (this year Julia Nasi) descends from the top of the bell tower with the help of a crane and steel wire, throwing flowers and officially launching the Carnival.

A relatively new tradition is the Flight of the Eagle, featuring an Italian athlete who symbolizes strength, courage, and rebirth. This year, the “Aquila” is Carolina Kostner, the bronze medalist female figure skater at the 2014 Sochi Olympics.

Pictures courtesy of carnevale.venezia.it

Carnevale di Bergamo

The Carnival of Bergamo began as an ancient tradition of burning a wooden lady representing the defining problem of the previous year. The two week long festival celebrates recreation as well as death and rebirth of nature with the cycle of seasons. Falling in the middle of Lent and ending on Fat Tuesday, it takes place in many Italian cities, each with their own local flair.  Festivities include theatrical productions, music, parades, food and toy markets, symbolic costumes and masks, Halloween-ish dress-up for children, and a sea of confetti.

costumes symbolizing rebirth of nature

shops selling baked goods, candy, toys, and costumes

The iconic masked characters come from the traditional “zanni” or set of archetypal characters of the Commedia dell’Arte – a form of theatre born in 16^th century Italy. Instead of focusing on the written work of academics and philosophers, as in Commedia Erudita, Commedia dell’Arte is performed by professional actors portraying certain stock characters. These stock characters became iconic “masks,” beginning as satires of Italian stereotypes and developing into the archetypes of Italian theatre. Each mask is specific to a certain city and is emphasized there during the Carnevale; Bergamo’s mask is Arlecchino, the Harlequin, the mischievous servant of the iconic multicolored diamond costume. Venice’s mask is Pantalone, the miserly merchant.

postcards of the various "mascchere"

The Dream

My goal is to explore Italy’s history and culture and reconnect with my heritage – to understand what it means to be an Italian. I intend to develop my own Italian identity by enriching my knowledge of its past and present and connecting it with my other interests, such as literature, music, and linguistics. With a foundation in the country’s history and an understanding of the present society, including politics, current events, traditions, art, popular culture, and global relevance, I would see the landmarks of my childhood through newly enlightened eyes and appreciate their significance. I want to be an informed and socially aware Italian who can discuss both historic and current events with an equal level of confidence and sophistication as someone who has grown up in Italy. Though I understand I can't make up for 17 years in 2 weeks, I think that this project will initiate my lifelong development as an Italian alongside my growth as an American.

I've divided my project into 3 main parts: literature, history, and culture. Mr. Guerra, a retired historian, has agreed to supervise me and review my work.

Literature

I’d start by reading staples of Italian literature such as The Inferno, I Promessi Sposi, and Il Canzoniere before the trip, journaling my responses and analyses, researching their global influence, and discussing the reading with my supervisor. With these works, I plan to read the original italian alongside the english translation and create my own translation of certain passages based on my interpretations of the text and personal connotations of various words.

History
I will be using various history textbooks, primary sources in Latin and Italian – including texts by Julius Caesar and renaissance era compositions – and modern day Italian journals and news to develop a broad view of Italy’s story, supplemented by trips to historical landmarks and museums.

Culture

I plan to visit many art galleries and landmarks throughout the trip, as well as various performances and traditional events. These include the Carnevale di Venezia, Opera Donizettiano, Milan Fashion Week, and local concerts.